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The Phytochemical Glossary

Here is a list of terms used in phytochemical research.

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Allium compounds: Another name for the organosulfides, or allyl sulfides, found in allium vegetables, which include garlic, onions, leeks, chives and shallots. Allium compounds such as diallyl sulfide and allyl methyl trisulfide may boost enzyme cancer detox systems and prevent bacteria from converting nitrates into substances that help make carcinogens. Garlic lowers cholesterol in people with elevated readings; diallyl sulfide is the suspected operative. Garlic also reduces blood clotting and lowers blood pressure. In addition to these and other possible health benefits, organosulfides give the allium family its pungency. But they may be lost in cooking.

Allyl methyl trisulfide: See "Allium compounds."

Alpha carotene: A powerful antioxidant carotenoid that the body converts to vitamin A, as needed. In population studies, alpha carotene is related to reduced risk of lung cancer. It may slow the proliferation of cancer cells. Carrots are a rich source.

Alpha tocopherol: The most common form of vitamin E, found both in the human body and in supplements. But gamma tocopherol is the primary source of vitamin E in the American diet, chiefly because so many foods such as margarine, salad dressings and packaged baked products are made with gamma-rich soybean oil.

Anthocyanins: Probably the most abundant flavonoid. See "Flavonoids."

Antioxidants: Antioxidants are chemical magnets that disarm highly reactive and damaging forms of oxygen, which are called collectively "free radicals." In chemicalspeak, these molecules are reactive because they have an extra electron to give away - and want to do it quick. Free radicals are the natural byproducts of energy metabolism in the cell but also come from outside sources. Although many phytochemicals are antioxidants, the most widely recognized and researched are beta carotene and vitamins C and E.

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Beta carotene: A carotenoid that is stored in the liver, where the body converts it to vitamin A, as needed; found in dark, leafy greens and red, orange and yellow fruits and vegetables. A powerful antioxidant, beta carotene may play a role in slowing the progression of cancer. In population studies, it's related to decreased risk of lung cancer and oral cancers. It also may enhance immunity, help prevent cataracts and slow plaque buildup in arteries. But it is not without controversy: In a study of Finnish smokers, lung cancer increased among those taking supplements. Similar problems occurred in a study of former smokers, smokers and workers exposed to asbestos. However, a 12-year U.S. trial of more than 20,000 physicians, most of whom did not smoke, showed no such increase nor any protective effect - for cancer or heart disease. These findings don't negate beta carotene's promise, but they do complicate the picture for now.

Biochanin A: See "Phytoesterogens."

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Vitamin C: The most effective water-soluble antioxidant, especially abundant in citrus fruits. Dr. Balz Frei, director of the Linus Pauling Institute at Oregon State University, calls it the "first line of antioxidant defense in human plasma." It works in concert with vitamin E to help slow LDL oxidation, as well as protecting against some cancers. It also protects parts of the eye against oxidative damage from ultraviolet light and may prevent cataracts.

Caffeic and ferulic acids: Phenolic acids that in animal studies prevent the formation of carcinogens in the stomach. Found in virtually all fruits and vegetables.

Campesterol: See "Phytosterols."

Carcinogens: Cancer-causing substances.

Carnosol: An antioxidant phenolic compound in rosemary that may prevent cholesterol oxidation and prevent cancer. Rosemary extracts are used in processed foods as a preservative, but flavor limits their application.

Carotenoids: A family of antioxidants that are also pigments in plants, giving foods such as tomatoes, watermelon and sweet potatoes their bright colors. Although more than 600 have been identified, only a handful are found in measurable quantities in the human body: alpha carotene, beta carotene, lycopene, lutein, zeaxanthin and cryptoxanthin. But around a dozen may be important. Carotenoids appear to play an anticancer role and enhance immunity. Lycopene is increasingly gaining ground as the most powerful antioxidant in the carotenoid family, particularly in relation to prostate and breast cancer. Two carotenoids found in the eye, lutein and zeaxanthin, are believed to protect against the leading cause of blindness in people over 65. Carotenoids also may play a role in heart health: In LDL oxidation, antioxidants are consumed in a sequence that begins with vitamin E; lycopene is next, followed by beta carotene. Although carotenoids appear to be heat resistant, sunlight breaks them down in the presence of oxygen, so don't cut up vegetables and leave them out on the counter for a long time before using them. Cooking foods lightly makes their carotenoids more readily available.

Catechins: A subclass of flavonoids found in tea. Up to 30% of the dry weight of green tea leaves is catechins. Scientists believe catechins to be one of the important active substances that gives green tea extract its cancer-preventive and possibly curative properties in animal studies. But population studies show no such clear-cut protective effect.

Chalcones: See "Flavonoids."

Cholesterol: A important component of blood lipids (fats) manufactured by the liver that's also the precursor of the steroid hormones, such as the sex and "fight or flight" hormones. Too much of some kinds, specifically low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), if oxidized, can collect inside artery walls as plaque, restricting blood flow, reducing vessel flexibility and leading to heart disease. High-density lipoprotein (HDL) helps move LDL cholesterol out of the system. Vitamin E, lycopene and beta carotene protect LDL from oxidation; their antioxidant activity is enhanced in the presence of vitamin C. People concerned with cholesterol should watch their intake of foods containing saturated fats, which stimulate the liver to make more cholesterol. Dietary cholesterol from animal-based foods has little effect on blood cholesterol in healthy people.

Coumarins: A class of widely occurring phenolic compounds, especially abundant in citrus fruits, that may help the enzymes that fend off cancer.

Cryptoxanthin: A carotenoid that's been associated with a decreased risk of cervical cancer. Abundant in many orange fruits, especially mango, tangerines, oranges and papaya.

Curcumin: A phenolic compound that gives turmeric and mustard spices their yellow color and exhibits anticancer, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties.

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Diadzein: See "Genistein."

Diallyl sulfide: An allium compound that may have an anticancer role and is suspected of being the active ingredient in garlic that lowers cholesterol. See "Allium compounds."

Dithiolthiones: Organosulfur compounds that are abundant in cruciferous vegetables and may aid the enzymes that fend off carcinogens and other outside invaders. They also may inhibit the development of cancer.

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Vitamin E: The most potent fat-soluble antioxidant, as well as one of the most widely recognized and researched. It occurs in eight chemical forms of varying potency; alpha tocopherol is the most common. But gamma tocopherol is the main type found in the American diet because so many products are made with soybean oil. Many kinds of research suggest that vitamin E works in concert with vitamin C, interfering with LDL oxidation and protecting against heart disease. But another part of this protection, its anticlotting function, may promote excessive bleeding in some people. Vitamin E also may play a role in immunity and in recovery from exercise-induced stress. In one study it delayed the onset of debilitating symptoms in Alzheimer's disease. It also shows anticancer promise. Getting enough E for such benefits from diet alone without overdoing fat is difficult because it's found primarily in oils, prompting many health experts to recommend taking supplements. Recommendations range from 100 to 800 IUs of vitamin E daily, with most in the 200 IUs to 400 IUs range, and some specify the natural form, d-alpha tocopherol, or mixed tocopherols. One study suggests that alpha and gamma tocopherol work in concert more effectively than individually against some particularly virulent free radicals. But the vitamin E research is far from definitive, and the supplement recommendations, controversial.

Ellagic acid: A phenolic acid with possible anticancer properties. Found in nuts, particularly walnuts, and fruits such as strawberries, cranberries and blackberries. But there is question as to its bioavailability (52).

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Ferulic acid: See "Caffeic acid."

Fiber: Population studies suggest that a fiber-rich diet helps prevent both cancer and heart disease. Scientists suspect that one kind, insoluble fiber, prevents colon cancer in particular, possibly by increasing bulk and speeding waste through the colon, binding with carcinogens and producing anticancer substances along the way. Whole wheat and wheat bran are rich sources. The second type, soluble fiber, appears to lower cholesterol and is abundant in oats, barley, legumes and vegetables such as potatoes. Most fruits, vegetables and grains contain a combination of the two types. Americans currently consume about 13 grams of fiber a day; the Daily Val
ues on food labels, based on a 2,000-calorie diet, suggest 25 grams.

Flavanones: See "Flavonoids."

Flavonoids: A broad subcategory of plant phenolics (or phenolic compounds) made up of more than 4,000 compounds that are found in fruits, vegetables, wine and tea, especially green tea. "Plants have evolved to produce flavonoids to protect against fungal parasites, herbivores, pathogens and oxidative cell injury," writes Natalie Cook in a 1996 overview. "Conversely, flavonoids produce stimuli to assist in pollination and guide insects to their food source. For example, anthocyanins produce the pink, red, mauve, violet and blue colors of flowers, fruits and vegetables." The many potential effects of flavonoids include defending cells against carcinogens, curbing the oxidation of LDL cholesterol and preventing blood clotting. Major flavonoid classes include flavonols, flavanones, catechins, anthocyanins, isoflavones, dihydroflavonols and chalcones.

Flavonols: See "Flavonoids" and "Quercetin."

Folic acid: In the realm of cancer study, a deficiency of this nutrient may lead to chromosome and/or DNA damage that can open the way for cancer. In heart research, low folate causes high levels of homocysteine in the blood, which increases the risk for stroke and heart attack. Found in dark leafy greens.

Free radicals: Highly reactive molecular byproducts of energy metabolism that can damage cells and DNA. Free radicals also come from environmental sources such as cigarette smoke, auto and industrial emissions and sunlight. A leading theory of aging holds that free radicals are largely responsible for the declines and diseases associated with aging.

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Genistein: An isoflavone, like daidzein, uniquely abundant in soyfoods; some of it is converted in the intestines to a compound that acts as a weak estrogen (phytoestrogen); the subject of hundreds of studies. Scientists believe it may be a significant anticancer force, particularly with hormone-related cancers such as breast cancer. It also may offer protection against cardiovascular disease by reducing blood clotting and/or cholesterol levels. Further, it may play a role in bone health and in relieving menopausal symptoms. See "Phytoestrogens."

Glutathione: A water-soluble antioxidant found in onions and potatoes that may detoxify cancer-causing substances. It also supports the actions of other antioxidants, such as vitamins C and E and beta carotene.

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HDL cholesterol: See "Cholesterol."

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